Economic analysis for policy appraisal is generally interested in answering two questions, "is a given policy objective worth achieving" and if so, "has the policy objective been achieved in the most cost-effective way?" While the first question is addressed in a cost-benefit analysis (CBA), the second question can be answered with the help of a cost-effective analysis (CEA). The authors of this book chapter focus on ex-post CEA and reveal problems, challenges and opportunities of CEA at the European level.

Export Credit Agencies (ECAs) play a substantial role in the financing of infrastructure in developing countries. As the activities of ECAs are backed-up by public resources, national governments have the power to set guidelines for ECA lending policies. Most governments include social and environmental aspects in their ECA guidelines. This book section has a closer look at the role of transparency, information disclosure and participation in the cover decisions of ECAs.

What is the role of civil society actors in the assessment of trade agreements with regard to their sustainability impact? The book chapter authored by Markus Knigge and Nicole Kranz analyses the underlying processes and contexts and makes suggestions for the effective involvement of stakeholders in the assessment process at the EU level.

In his contribution Ingmar von Homeyer examines the level of participatory governance in three issue areas: biotechnology regulation/the revision of the Deliberate Release Directive, European political values/the ‘sanctions’ against Austria/revision of Article 7 TEU, and employment policy/the European Employment Strategy.

Successful and cost-effective implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) will depend on a deep understanding of the WFD’s economic dimensions. Eduard Interwies, Britta Pielen, Benjamin Görlach, and R. Andreas Kraemer have co-authored a chapter about these critical economic considerations and implications in a policy handbook on the WFD. Drawing from the 2004 economic analysis of the WFD, the authors examine the current and future challenges of integrating a full economic perspective into the WFD’s implementation.

What are the specific administrative challenges of the Water Framework Directive. How should its administrative responses be structured – with respect to organisation, personnel, and information technology? What role do the pilot projects play in the implementation of the Water Framework Directive? Peter Kessler, Ecologic Senior Policy Advisor, addresses these issues in the Handbook for the EU-Water Framework Directive.

In this chapter of the Handbook for the EU-Water Framework Directive, Stephan von Keitz and R. Andreas Kraemer present the possibilities for diverse stakeholder involvement – including agriculture, industry, water, transportation policy and others. The options are organised into short- and long-term implementation recommendations.

This chapter in the Handbook for the EU-Water Framework Directive addresses the causes of hydromorphological shortcomings and the consequences of hydraulic engineering interventions on the ecological status of water bodies. The authors, Stephan von Keitz and R. Andreas Kraemer, analyse the possibilities to bring navigational interests, the use of hydropower, and flood control measures in line with the goals of the Water Framework Directive.

Which effects does climate change have on the infrastructures near coastlines? Who pays for social security programs in the future? Which potential energy sources are still to be used? Trying to ignore the problems behind these questions is not a sustainable solution.

Since 1950 about the same amount of land was taken into usage for settlement and transport as in the entire history in Germany before. Although the population is decreasing, increases in demand for improved living conditions and growing rates of single households will continue land development. While ecological disadvantages of urban sprawl were recognised long ago, there could also appear – under conditions of population decrease – devastating economic and social consequences.

Nature conservation contributes significantly to preserving the natural heritage of Germany. However, conservation has been unable to stop biodiversity loss and the negative effects of intensive land use in such a closely populated country. In this chapter, Rainer Müssner shows how in times of demographic and social change, nature conservation has dangers as well as concrete options as to how to preserve the German cultural landscape.

Within industrialised countries, oil is a crucial resource for economic success and social well-being. However, the exploitation of the last reserves of the "black gold" is increasingly leading to wars. At the same time, climate change is making energy efficiency essential. Though people have relied on crude oil since the beginning of the 20th century, this reliance will not be possible in the future.

In the future, increases in motorization and traffic capacity will no longer be synonymous with mobility. In particular, inhabitants in rural areas need to consider that short distance public transportation (ÖPNV) will be strongly reduced. The state now anticipates the problem of guaranteeing the public’s general interest in the principle of equal living conditions.

The United Nations (UN) are in a crisis, not least because of their lack of democratic legitimacy: too many of the member countries are non-democratic, and internal procedures in the UN are unnecessarily closed to public debate and scrutiny. A panel of eminent experts led by Fernando Enrique Cardoso made proposals for reform. In a contribution to a book on the rule of international law in a globalised world, R. Andreas Kraemer assesses the panel's proposals.

In this chapter of "Smit and Herzog on The Law of the European Union", founded by Hans Smit and Peter Herzog, Michael Mehling and Gitte Warnick of Ecologic Institute describe and analyze Title XIX of the Treaty establishing the European Community. First, the authors provide an in-depth review of the evolution of the corresponding paragraphs and articles, as well as a review of European environmental policy in general. The second part analyzes significant related measures of secondary legislation.